Language Knowledge Emerges from Language Use: Usage-Based Approaches to SLA

In the field of second language acquisition (SLA), a fundamental debate has long persisted: Is language ability innate or acquired? The "nativist" perspective, championed by Chomsky, once dominated, positing the existence of an inborn "Universal Grammar" in the human brain. However, since the late 20th century, a powerful intellectual current has emerged, fundamentally altering our understanding of language learning—this is the Usage-Based approach to SLA. It proposes that the grand edifice of language is not built upon an innate blueprint but rather "emerges" gradually from specific social interactional experiences, brick by brick, through "use."

在第二语言习得研究领域，长期存在一个根本性争论：语言能力究竟是天赋的，还是后天习得的？以乔姆斯基为代表的"先天论"曾占据主导地位，认为人类大脑中存在着与生俱来的"普遍语法"。然而，自20世纪末以来，一股强大的思潮异军突起，彻底改变了我们对语言学习的认知——这就是基于使用的二语习得理论。它主张，语言这座宏伟的大厦，并非建立在先天的蓝图之上，而是通过一砖一瓦的"使用"，从具体的社会互动体验中逐渐"浮现"出来的。

I. Theoretical Foundations: A Rebellion Against Nativism and Integration with Cognitive Science

The emergence of Usage-Based theory stemmed from deep reflection on the limitations of Universal Grammar in explaining SLA. Universal Grammar struggled to adequately account for the variable success levels among L2 learners, their dependence on input quality, and the significant role of formulaic language. Concurrently, the vigorous development of cognitive science and functional linguistics provided it with a solid theoretical foundation.

基于使用理论的出现，源于对普遍语法理论在解释二语习得时局限性的深刻反思。普遍语法难以完美解释二语学习者多变的成功水平、对输入质量的依赖性以及程式化语言的重要作用。与此同时，认知科学和功能语言学的蓬勃发展，为其提供了坚实的理论基石。

Its core ideas can be summarized as follows:

• Frequency Effects
  • Core Idea: The frequency of language input and output is a key factor determining the speed and difficulty of acquisition.
• High Frequency = High Entrenchment: The more frequently a word, phrase, or grammatical structure appears, the more deeply entrenched it becomes in the learner's mind, and the faster it is retrieved. For instance, the reason "How are you?" can be uttered effortlessly by learners is precisely its extremely high usage frequency.
• Formulaic Language: Language contains a vast number of pre-fabricated chunks (e.g., "by the way," "on the other hand"). Learners initially acquire and use these as whole units, rather than generating them via rules. High-frequency use makes these chunks easier to master holistically.

语言输入和输出的频率是决定习得速度和难度的关键因素。

高频率=高固化： 一个词、短语或语法结构出现的频率越高，它在学习者大脑中就固化得越深，提取速度也越快。例如，英语中的"How are you?"之所以能被学习者脱口而出，正是因为其极高的使用频率。

程式化语言： 语言中存在大量预制语块（如"by the way", "on the other hand"），学习者最初是将其作为一个整体单位来学习和使用的，而非通过规则生成。高频使用使得这些语块更容易被整体掌握。

• Constructions as Basic Units
  • Core Idea: The basic units of language are form-function pairings, i.e., constructions.
  • Definition of Constructions: A construction can be as small as a word (e.g., "apple"), a phrase (e.g., "kick the bucket" meaning "to die"), or as large as a sentence frame (e.g., the English double-object structure "Subj V Obj1 Obj2"). Each construction carries specific meaning and function.
  • Implication for SLA: L2 learners learn specific constructions one by one, not abstract grammatical rules. Rules are induced from the use of numerous constructions.

 语言的基本单位是"形式-功能"的配对体，即构式。

构式的定义： 构式可以小到一个词（如"apple"）、一个短语（如"kick the bucket"意为"去世"），也可以大到一个句子框架（如英语的双宾结构"Subj V Obj1 Obj2"）。每个构式都承载着特定的意义和功能。

对二语习得的意义： 二语学习者学习的是一个个具体的构式，而不是抽象的语法规则。规则是从大量构式的使用中归纳出来的。

• Inductive Learning and Categorization
  • Core Idea: Language learning is a bottom-up process of induction, not a top-down application of rules.
  • Learning Process: Learners are exposed to numerous specific language instances (input); their brains automatically seek similarities and patterns among these instances, classifying and categorizing them, thereby forming abstract linguistic schemas.
  • Example: By hearing sentences like "I want milk," "She wants water," "They want coffee," learners gradually induce the schema "Subject + want/wants + noun" and understand the rule of adding "-s" for the third person singular.

 语言学习是一个自下而上的归纳过程，而非自上而下的规则套用。

学习过程： 学习者接触到大量具体的语言实例（输入），大脑会自动寻找这些实例之间的相似性和模式，对其进行分类和范畴化，从而形成抽象的语言图式。

举例： 学习者通过听到"I want milk", "She wants water", "They want coffee"等句子，逐渐归纳出"主语 + want/wants + 名词"这个图式，并理解了第三人称单数需要加"-s"的规律。

• Exemplar-Based Learning
  • Core Idea: The brain stores countless specific "exemplars" of language use. When we encounter new expressions, we analogize them to similar exemplars in our memory to comprehend and produce language.
  • Difference from Rule Learning: Learners do not always apply perfect rules. For example, a learner might say "He goed home," not because they don't know the rule, but because they are analogizing from exemplars like "walk-walked," "play-played."

大脑储存了无数个具体的语言使用"范例"，当我们遇到新的表达时，会将其与记忆中已有的相似范例进行类比，从而理解和产出语言。

与规则学习的区别： 学习者并非总是应用完美的规则。例如，一个学习者可能会说出"He goed home"，这不是因为他不知道规则，而是他类比了"walk-walked", "play-played"这些范例。

• Emergentism
  • Core Idea: Complex language systems "emerge" from simple, specific language use. Grammar is not the starting point of learning, but its result.
  • Developmental Path: Learners typically start with concrete, unanalyzed chunks, then gradually break them down, discover their variable parts, and finally form abstract grammatical structures. This path can be summarized as: formulaic language -> analysis -> restructuring.

复杂的语言系统是从简单的、具体的语言使用中"浮现"出来的。语法不是学习的起点，而是学习的结果。

发展路径： 学习者通常从具体的、不分析的语块开始，然后逐渐将其分解，发现其中的可变部分，最终形成抽象的语法结构。这个路径可以概括为：程式化语言 -> 分析 -> 重组。

II. Historical Development: A Trilogy from Germination to Prosperity

The development of Usage-Based theory was not an overnight phenomenon; it underwent a clear progression from conceptual germination, through theoretical construction, to empirical prosperity.

基于使用理论的发展，并非一蹴而就，它经历了一个从思想萌芽、理论构建到实证繁荣的清晰历程。

• Phase 1: Conceptual Germination and Early Exploration (1980s-1990s)
  During this period, scholars began challenging nativism from multiple angles. For instance, the rise of corpus linguistics, by analyzing vast amounts of authentic language data, revealed that language is replete with formulaic expressions and fixed collocations, directly challenging the view that "language is entirely rule-generated." Simultaneously, scholars like Nick Ellis began systematically introducing concepts from cognitive psychology—such as "associative learning," "exemplar theory," and "frequency effects"—into SLA research. They proposed that language learning shares the same cognitive mechanisms as other types of human learning, with nothing special about it. These explorations paved the way for Usage-Based theory, establishing "use" and "frequency" as core principles.

这一时期，学者们开始从多个方向挑战先天论。例如，语料库语言学的兴起，通过分析海量真实语料，揭示了语言中充斥着大量的程式化语言和固定搭配，这直接动摇了"语言完全由规则生成"的观点。同时，像Nick Ellis这样的学者，开始系统地将认知心理学中的"联想学习"、"范例理论"和"频次效应"引入二语习得研究。他们提出，语言学习与人类其他类型的学习共享同样的认知机制，并无特殊之处。这些探索为基于使用的理论铺平了道路，奠定了"使用"和"频次"的核心地位。

• Phase 2: Theoretical Construction and Framework Establishment (Late 1990s - Early 2000s)
  Around the turn of the millennium, Usage-Based theory reached its peak of "theorization." Cognitive linguistics, particularly Ronald Langacker's "Cognitive Grammar" and Goldberg's "Construction Grammar," provided it with mature theoretical frameworks. Construction Grammar explicitly stated that the basic unit of language is the construction, and grammatical knowledge is an inventory of constructions, perfectly aligning with the Usage-Based view of basic units. At this point, the "Usage-Based Model" formally became a distinct theoretical paradigm. It systematically proposed that linguistic complexity (e.g., syntactic rules) "emerges" from simple, specific language use. The learner's developmental path follows a typical sequence: from memorized formulaic language, to analysis of chunks, and finally to restructuring into abstract grammatical schemas. During this phase, the theoretical system was fully established.

进入新世纪前后，基于使用的理论迎来了其"理论化"高潮。认知语言学，特别是Ronald Langacker的"认知语法"和Goldberg的"构式语法"，为其提供了成熟的理论框架。构式语法明确提出，语言的基本单位是构式，语法知识就是一个构式的清单，这完美契合了基于使用理论的基本单位观。此时，"基于使用的模型"正式成为一种旗帜鲜明的理论范式。它系统地提出，语言的复杂性（如句法规则）是从简单的、具体的语言使用中"浮现"出来的。学习者的语言发展路径遵循着一个典型序列：从死记硬背的程式化语言，到对语块进行分析，最后通过重组形成抽象的语法图式。这一阶段，理论体系得以完整建立。

• Phase 3: Empirical Prosperity and Interdisciplinary Integration (Early 21st Century - Present)
  In the 21st century, Usage-Based theory entered a golden age of empirical research. With the introduction of psychological experimental techniques (e.g., eye-tracking, ERP), Dynamic Systems Theory, and Complex Adaptive Systems Theory, researchers gained the ability to probe the micro-processes of language acquisition more finely. Numerous studies confirmed the crucial role of frequency effects across all levels of SLA, from lexical recognition to syntactic processing. Meanwhile, the perspective of Dynamic Systems Theory led to the understanding that a learner's interlanguage is a complex system characterized by constant fluctuation, restructuring, and non-linearity, with developmental paths full of variation—this being the natural manifestation of the system self-organizing through use. Furthermore, its dialogue with Sociocultural Theory deepened, as scholars recognized that mere input frequency is insufficient; language must be used in meaningful, social interaction to be effectively internalized.

进入21世纪，基于使用理论进入了实证研究的黄金时期。随着心理学实验技术（如眼动、ERP）、动态系统理论和复杂适应系统理论的引入，研究者能够更精细地探测语言习得的微观过程。大量研究证实了频次效应在二语习得各层面的关键作用，从词汇识别到句法加工。同时，动态系统理论的视角让人们认识到，学习者的中介语是一个不断波动、重组、非线性的复杂系统，其发展路径充满变异，而这正是系统通过使用进行自我组织的自然表现。此外，它与社会文化理论的对话也日益加深，学者们认识到，单纯的输入频次还不够，语言必须在有意义的、社会互动的"使用"中，才能被有效内化。

III. Pedagogical Implications

Usage-Based theory has profoundly reshaped the philosophy of second language teaching. It advocates for:
基于使用理论深刻地重塑了二语教学的理念。它倡导：

• Providing rich, comprehensible, authentic input, exposing learners to natural, high-frequency language patterns.
• Emphasizing the teaching of chunks and formulaic language as the foundation for fluency and idiomaticity.
• Promoting Task-Based Language Teaching and a skill-learning perspective, allowing students to "learn by doing" and internalize language through completing meaningful communicative tasks.
• Encouraging inductive learning, guiding students to summarize patterns from numerous examples themselves, thereby deepening cognitive understanding.

提供丰富、可理解的真实语料，让学习者暴露在自然的高频语言模式中。

重视语块和程式化语言教学，将其作为流利度和地道性的基石。

倡导任务型教学法和技能学习观，让学生在"做中学"，在完成有意义的交际任务中内化语言。

鼓励归纳式学习，引导学生从大量实例中自行总结规律，深化认知。