The Beginning of Programmed Instruction: "The Science of Learning and the Art of Teaching"

In 1954, B.F. Skinner published his seminal article, "The Science of Learning and the Art of Teaching," which presented a core argument: since we now possess a science of learning—behavioral psychology—we should use this science to fundamentally reform the art of teaching. From a scientist's perspective, Skinner offered a sharp critique of traditional classrooms and proposed a revolutionary solution based on his principles of operant conditioning.

1954年，B.F. 斯金纳发表了具有开创性的文章《学习的科学和教学的艺术》。他提出了一个核心论点：既然我们已经拥有了一门关于"学习"的科学——行为主义心理学，我们就应该用这门科学来彻底革新教学这门艺术。从一个科学家的视角，斯金纳对传统课堂进行了尖锐的批判，并基于其操作条件反射原理，提出了一项革命性的解决方案。

Critique of Traditional Teaching

Skinner argued that the classroom instruction of his time was scientifically inefficient and even harmful, primarily due to three fundamental flaws:

斯金纳认为，当时的课堂教学在科学上是低效甚至有害的，主要存在三个根本缺陷：

Delay and Lack of Reinforcement
In traditional classrooms, a student's response (e.g., answering a question, completing homework) was often followed by a significant delay (hours or even days until the teacher graded the work) before receiving feedback (reinforcement). From a behaviorist standpoint, delayed reinforcement is inefficient for forming strong associations with behavior. Furthermore, with large class sizes, teachers couldn't possibly reinforce every correct response from every student promptly. This lack of reinforcement frequency significantly slowed the learning process.

在传统课堂中，学生的反应（例如回答问题、完成作业）与获得反馈（强化）之间通常存在显著延迟（可能需要几小时甚至几天，直到老师批改完作业）。从行为主义的观点来看，延迟的强化对于建立牢固的行为关联是低效的。此外，由于班级规模大，教师几乎不可能对每个学生的每一个正确反应都给予及时强化。这种强化频率的不足极大地减缓了学习进程。

Lack of a Coherent, Reinforcing Sequence
Traditional textbooks and curricula presented knowledge in large units (e.g., entire chapters). Students often made a series of errors at the end of such units, effectively "practicing mistakes." Instruction lacked a carefully designed sequence of small, incremental steps that would allow students to progress from one step to the next with minimal errors.

传统的教科书和课程以大的单元（例如，整章内容）来呈现知识。学生在学习这些单元后，经常在最后阶段犯一系列错误，这实际上是在"练习错误"。教学缺乏一个由大量微小、渐进步骤精心设计的序列，无法确保学生能够以最少的错误从一个步骤过渡到下一个步骤。

Over-reliance on Aversive Stimuli and Control
Due to the lack of effective positive reinforcement, traditional classrooms relied heavily on negative measures to force learning—such as low grades, criticism, punishment, ridicule from peers, or the fear of disappointing parents. Skinner argued that a learning environment motivated by escaping these aversive stimuli generated anxiety, fostered a dislike for school, and ultimately undermined the inherent joy of learning.

由于缺乏有效的正面强化，传统课堂严重依赖负面手段来强迫学习——例如低分、批评、惩罚、同学的嘲笑或害怕让父母失望。斯金纳认为，这种以逃避厌恶性刺激为动机的学习环境，会让学生产生焦虑、厌恶学校，并最终损害学习本身固有的乐趣。

The Proposed Solution — Programmed Instruction and Teaching Machines

Based on this critique, Skinner proposed a solution centered on "programmed instruction," implemented through "teaching machines." This approach was built upon several key principles of operant conditioning:

基于以上批判，斯金纳提出了以"程序教学"为核心的解决方案，并通过"教学机器"来实施。该方法建立在操作条件反射的几个关键原则之上：

Small Steps Principle

Content is broken down into a large number of very small, logically sequenced steps. Each step presents only a tiny amount of new information, minimizing the probability of error and ensuring smooth progression.

教学内容被分解为大量微小、逻辑顺序严密的步骤。每一步只呈现极少量的新信息，从而最大限度地降低出错概率，确保学习过程顺畅。

Active Response Principle

 Students are required to make an overt, active response at each step (e.g., filling in a blank, solving a problem). Skinner believed that "learning is a byproduct of doing," asserting that learning occurs only through active engagement.

要求学生在每一步都做出外显的、积极的反应（例如填空、解题）。斯金纳认为"学习是做的副产品"，并断言学习只有通过主动参与才会发生。

Immediate Feedback Principle

Students receive immediate knowledge of their results after responding. A teaching machine could be designed to reveal the correct answer as soon as the student constructed their response. This instant reinforcement was crucial for establishing and strengthening correct behaviors.

学生在做出反应后立即获知结果。教学机器可以被设计成在学生给出答案后立即显示正确答案。这种即时强化对于建立和巩固正确行为至关重要。

Self-Pacing Principle

 Each student progresses through the material at their own speed. This accommodated individual differences, allowing faster students to advance without waiting and preventing slower students from falling behind or becoming anxious.

每个学生按照自己的速度学习材料。这适应了个体差异，让学得快的学生无需等待，也防止学得慢的学生落后或产生焦虑。

Impact and Significance

Pioneered the Programmed Instruction Movement

This article directly sparked the Programmed Instruction movement of the 1950s and 60s, leading to the design and development of various teaching machines and programmed textbooks.

这篇文章直接催生了20世纪50-60年代的程序教学运动，推动了各种教学机器和程序化教材的设计与开发。

Theoretical Foundation for Educational Technology

Although the early mechanical teaching machines eventually became obsolete, the core principles of programmed instruction were fully adopted by later technologies like Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI), online learning platforms, educational software, and adaptive learning technologies. When you use a language learning app (like Duolingo) that breaks learning into small steps, requires active responses like filling blanks, provides immediate feedback, and allows self-pacing, you are experiencing the blueprint Skinner outlined in 1954.

尽管早期的机械式教学机器最终被淘汰，但程序教学的核心原则被后来的计算机辅助教学、在线学习平台、教育软件和自适应学习技术全盘继承。当你使用一个将学习分解为小步骤、要求你主动填空、提供即时反馈并允许自定进度的语言学习应用程序（如Duolingo）时，你正在体验的就是斯金纳在1954年所描绘的蓝图。

Emphasis on Learner-Centered Design

 Skinner's approach shifted the focus of instruction from "teacher teaching" to "student learning," emphasizing the creation of optimal learning conditions for the student.

斯金纳的方法将教学的重点从"教师的教"转向"学生的学"，强调要为学生创造最理想的学习条件。

Limitations and Criticism

Excessive Mechanization and Rigidity

Critics argued that programmed instruction reduced the complex human learning process to a mechanical "stimulus-response-reinforcement" chain, neglecting higher-order mental processes such as understanding, insight, creative thinking, and emotion.

批评者认为，程序教学将复杂的人类学习过程简化为机械的"刺激-反应-强化"链条，忽视了理解、洞察力、创造性思维和情感等高阶心理过程。

Neglect of Social Interaction

This learning model was highly individualized, lacking the benefits of social learning and cognitive conflict that arise from teacher-student and student-student interactions in a traditional classroom setting.

这种学习模式是高度个人化的，缺乏传统课堂环境中师生互动和生生协作所带来的社会性学习和认知冲突的价值。

Controversy Over "One Science"

 Skinner's stance that behaviorism was the science of learning was later strongly challenged by other schools of thought, such as cognitivism and constructivism.

斯金纳将行为主义视为学习研究的唯一科学的立场，后来受到了其他学派（如认知主义和建构主义）的强烈挑战。